The history of the Mozambican languages.

The oral use of the languages is not an objective for this historical part.

The Mozambican languages are all Bantu-languages

They were introduced to Mozambique before AD 500 through migrations by tribes from Central Africa.

The differences between the languages indicate the difference in historical origin. In other words, linguistics is an important source to the history of migration.

In the south there is an influence from other languages (khoisan) e.g. the click-sound. Along the coast, there is an influence from Arabic traders, specially in Swahili and for Mozambique in the coastal language Kimwani, which is mentioned as Mozambican Swahili.

There also were contact with India (signs of this are seen in agriculture), Indonesia (the Madagascan language is not a Bantu language, but related to languages on Borneo) and China (up to 1479, when China abandoned their expansion policy) before the European entrance on the scene. I found no linguistic traces of this influence.

The first case of writing found in this research is in Swahili and Kimwani, where the Arabic influence in the 17^th century resulted in religious poetry written in Arabic script. In Mozambique, the Kimwani was used in the administration written with arab letters.

The written use of the languages can be illustrated through the publications through time.

The list contain

1. publications about the languages, grammars, dictionaries

2. publications written in the languages.

3. Books on linguistics and language policy.

The list contains all the books I have met dated before 2000

Publications after 2000 are so numerous, that I can´t include all.

The historic dimension of the language policy.

Under colonial rule.

The creation of Mozambique – just as the creation of other African states – was done without regard to the local conditions, tribes, culture, language etc. This took place in Berlin 1884-85 , where the European powers sat down to share Africa. The idea was to give the land to the power who had that particular area under control. Portugal did not have control over Mozambique, but still it got the right to have this as a colony.

Portugal was poor and not politically stable and did not have the capacity to administer the colonies. Huge parts of Mozambique were already before 1890 given to private companies. See map (*b17*):

(There was also the “Sena Sugar Company”)

The companies had the right to exploit their area and should pay the Portuguese state for this. There was no obligation of provide for the local population, but a right to collect tax, which often was replaced by forced labour – chibalo – an activity which only was abandoned in 1961. The companies had their own guards or armies to maintain law and order.

The companies were not responsible for the education of the population, this was left to the Christian Missions, who often worked across the borders, just as the languages were transnational.

In 1910, the monarchy in Portugal was replaced by a liberal republic, and a special ministry for the colonies was established in 1911. The basic principle was to integrate the colonies in Portugal, a policy which was not made into practical policy. There was still no surplus left for caring for the colonies, and in 1926 the republic collapsed, to be replaced by a fascistic dictatorship under António Oliveira Salazar,  professor in economics.

Salazar introduced ”O Estado Novo”, where the colonies became overseas provinces. This was a continuation of the policy of the republic, but this time it was put into practise (Acta Colonial 1933). The result was a suppression of the Mozambican culture including the languages, of the socio-political structure disguised behind nice words as: ”Portugals historic mission to spread the word of God, civilization, social improvement and development (*18*). Civilizing the people also meant assimilation: to become ”assimilado” was to convert to catholicism, to speak Portuguese and to behave ”civilized” (=European).  Political assimilation was out of the question as there never were any plans of  self determination let alone independence (*19*)

Before Salazar there was never any defined language policy. Now the language policy became clear: Only the Portuguese language was allowed. The  Mozambican languages were deliberately kept down and neglected and called ”dialectos”. To obtain this an agreement is made in 1904 with the Catolic Church: Acordo Missionário (7/5 1940) and Estatuto Missionário (1941) defined the principles after which the work of the church should be carried out. This was made with approval from the Vatican. (Concordata 7/3 1940).

These principles are in short:

The Catholic Church got a monopoly to do missionary work, and the state paid the salaries. In return, the church should teach by means of Portuguese and secure that only Portuguese was used. The state should provide school buildings (*p11*).

This alliance ”the Cross and the Sword” lasted until independence in  1975, i.e. there was a systematic deliberate negligence of the national languages during this period. Other missions were not allowed to operate, unless they accepted the terms. The Protestant mission got eventually an important role to play, as the opposition to the colonial power made them support Frelimo.

By independence in 1975 no research had been carried out in the national languages, and there was no knowledge of the number or distribution of the languages. Further the Mozambicans were indoctrinated with the thesis that only the Portuguese language gave access to development.

Language policy after independence

The situation just after independence was chaotic. There were 250000 foreigners in the country in 1975 before independence, mainly Portuguese, and they were in charge of all important functions in the public administration and in the private business. After independence only 15.000 remained  (*b21*), which meant that practically all central functions in the society were vacant.

On the other hand, there was a great joy among the Mozambicans over the possibility of self determination and a huge euphoria over the freedom. There were difficult tasks in all areas, and the linguistic question was put aside. Portuguese was chosen as the official language and as the tool for development and national unity. There might have been the fear that the use of the national languages would split the country and threaten the national unity, but there was really no choice: the linguistic situation in Mozambique was not analysed enough to even try to use any of the national languages for official purposes. In 1977, FRELIMO chose the ideology of Marxism-Leninism, which meant a central control and a suppression of the local traditions, including the languages – without any constructive replacement (*b21*). This ideology remained the official view until the 5 th congress in 1997.

The new Mozambican regime adopted not only the colonial language, but also the colonial language policy.

A chronological view of some initiatives, which have linguistic relevance:

Jan 1975: Seminar under the transition government where the rules for the school were defined.

Juli 1975: The President Samora Machel announced the nationalization of the educational sector. The Catholic Church, which was in charge of the  education in the colonial time, was so close to the state, that there was no possibility that their activities could continue. A school system was created, that was open to all, secular and free. The ministry of education and culture had sole responsibility for the school system. The curricula were altered from schooling in the Portuguese culture, history and language to introduction into the Marxistic-Leninistic ideology, with emphasis on the Mozambican society, but still by means of the Portuguese language. The number of school children rose dramatically during the first years of independence. Most of the teachers were not trained and there were often 80 pupils per class.

Education became a very popular cause, and there was a literacy campaign without precedence, where more than half a million people learned to read and write between 1974 and 1978  (*21*). Still: ”Alfabetização” was about Portuguese only!

1978: Bantu languages are introduced as a subject in the teacher education both at UEM and UP (*B20*).

1979 1. seminar about "Ensino da língua portuguesa", where it is pointed out: "A necessidade de aprofundar o estudo das linguas mocambicanas ..." . This was apparently not followed up. (*b39*)

1981: INDE (Instituto Nacional de Desenvolvimento de Educação) for curriculum development is founded. (*b42*)

1981: NELIMO (Nucleo de Estudos de Linguas Mozambicanas) for research is founded. (*b9*).

1982: INDE project “Bilingualism, cognitive development and pre-school experience of Mozambican children” (*b42*)

In the early 80’s, the civil war begins to influence Mozambique. Over the years it becomes devastating for the schools.

1983: After a meeting about African Languages in Conacry in 1981, UNESCO launched an investigation of the Mozambican languages, resulting in the report "Elements of a Policy for Promotion of a National Language", 1983. Whether this report has had any influence in practical policy is an open question.

1985. ”Limani” starts: Semi annual magazine fron UEM about linguistics and literature.

1986: A UNESCO report: "Evaluation of the Literacy Campain" is published. It deals only with literacy in Portuguese.

In 1987 there is a conference teacher "Literature and Language" in Harare (ATOLL), where Mozambique participates (*b8*)

1988: 1^o seminar on “Radiodifusão em linguas moçambicanas” (*b35*)

1988: 1. seminar on orthography is held. 20 languages are mentioned whereof 15 are treated in detail.

1989: A study ”Licenciatura” in Bantu languages and introduced an UEM (*b20*).

1989-1993: Radio Mozambique project in national languages “CODER” (Comunicação para o Desenvolvimento Rural). For the first time, independent journalism was possible (not only translations). (*b43*).

1990. In “Constituição” is written: O Estado valoriza as linguas nacionais e promove o seu desenvolvimento e utilização crescente como línguas veiculares a na educação dos cidadões. (*b35*).

1990: World Bank recommends: New programmes should be undertaken on a ”priority basis”, including mother tongue teaching in the first two grades (*22*).  But there was no money for the implementation because of the economic conditions set by the very same World Bank (”Structural Adjustment Programme”).

1991: A LASU Workshop (*b24*): “The role of Linguistics in the promotion and effective use of national languages”.

1991:Seminar ”Educational Research”. 6 papers on ”Educação Bilingue” (EB) are presented  with emphasis om primary education. Pilot projects are defined as part of a 5-years plan (1990-1990) between UNIFEC and Mozambique. These are about adult education directed towards women in the languages Sena (”Kuona na kulemba”) and Tsonga (”Ahikfukeni”). (*b26*)

Pilotproject 92-96 in Tete (Nyanja) and in Gaza (Changane) are established forf the use of mother tongue in the first school classes. It is controlled by INDE and financed by UNDP and WB (*b23*). Evaluation report in 1997. Translated into English in 2001. (*b25*).

1992: law no 6/92 of 6. May says in article 4 about studies of the Mozambican languages:

O Sistema Nacional de Educação deve, no quadro dos princípios na presente lei valorizar e desenvolver as línguas nacionais, promovende a sua introdução progressive na educação dos citadãos.

1992: The war ends in october.

1993: 1st seminar on the use of national languages for information about the election process with participation of UEM, Radio Mozambique, Ministerio de Cultura e Juventude and UN observers.

1994-1996: Radio Mozambique project in national languages “CECE” (Comunicação e Educação cívica do Eleitorado) (*b35*).

1994: 1 world congress on Africal linguistics (Swaziland) (*b42*)

1994. The first general election. Information material was made in several languages, but no details available.

1994 "Confêrencia sobre o uso de Linguas Africanas no ensino e o papel das linguas de comunicacão internacional" INDE/CIB-UE)

1995 Muthiyana. Magazine in 3 languages: Portuguese, Emakhua and Xichangana financed by  NORAD og BCM (Banco Comercial de Mozambique). The number of issues is not available.

1995: National policy of education with the following words: “The government will also promote the introduction of Mozambican languages in education as well as literacy in these languages” (*30*)

1996: III Seminário de Radiodisusão em Línguas Moçambicanas. (Information of the first two seminars is not available. Financed by Friedrich Ebert Foundation.

1996 "Seminário: "Construindi o curriculo para a escola primária Mocambicana" INDE/PEBIMO

1997: Elaboration of new curriculum starts under INDE with support from The Nederlands, Danida, WB og UNESCO.(*b40*)

1997: Book as contribution to the debate of language polisy ”Política Linguística, princípios e problemas” by Professor Catedrâtico Armando J Lopes.

1997: Document from SIL on their activities in the languages Kimwani, Shimaconde, Emakhuwa, Ekoti e Cisena in the period 1995-97. (*b42*)

1999: Definitive decision about the introduction of Educação Bilingue from 2004 according to  Director do INDE Simão Mucavele. (AIM report 6/9 1999)

1999: 2. seminar on standardization of orthography. 17 languages are treated, 16 of these will be used in the Bilingual project from 2004.

At University of Cape Town, CASAS (Center for Advanced Studies of African Society) research is made in the African languages and standardization of orthography.

”The slow but continuous change in the ideological climate and the insistance from the academics” and ”the softening of the fight against tribalism” (*b27*) have gradually given the national languages a new status and forms the base for a more extensive use of them.

2000: The newspaper Notícias informs 2/10 that the municipal council of Maputo introduces Xironga as working languages together with Portuguese.

2000: First film in a Mozambican language (Xitshwa) (*b35*).

2000: Noticias informs that Radio Mozambique uses 18 national languages in their programmes, and that the television TVM also ought to use them in the future – indicating that the TV in 2000 still only used Portuguese.

2002: The new curriculum is introduced at pilot schools in Jan 2002 in 1., 3. and 6 class, and extended to 2., 4. and 7 class in 2003, and in  5. class in 2004. Gradually it should be extended to schools nation wide (*b40*).

The choice of languages for primary teaching and the acceptance of the NELIMO orthography has been a difficult process. There seems to be a consensus about this in 2004.

2004: EB should start nation wide, but was only introduced at 22 schools (*b41*).

2006: In March there was an international conference on EB. It was organized by the danish NGO IBIS and MEPT (Movimento Educacão Para Todos). The project has critically evaluated and it turned out that unly 14 schools had the programme running.(*b31*).

2007: A paper on language planning (*b44*) states that there are 23primary schools using EB, using all the 16 languages except Cinyanya

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